SIX QUESTIONS (SIX CENTRAL ISSUES THAT SEPARATE VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY):
Agent: Who primarily decides in moral matters—the community or the individual?
Standard: What is the universal standard of right action?
Motive: Why should I follow the rules?
Freedom: What is freedom?
Good life: What is the purpose, meaning, or goal of life?
Virtues: What are the qualities of a good person?
AQUINAS: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The human community
The constitutional monarchy possesses rights.
Standard Self-realization
Motive To attain one’s highest potentials
Freedom The exercise of the capacity to realize the potential given by
heredity, environment, and self-awareness
Good Life A life in which one’s potential is achieved
Virtues Temperance, Courage, Wisdom, Justice, Faith, Hope, Charity
ARISTOTLE: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The human community
The city-state possesses rights
Standard Self-realization
Motive To attain one’s highest potentials
Freedom The exercise of the capacity to achieve the potential given by heredity and environment
Good Life A life of moderation
Virtues Primary
The golden mean: (the middle column is the virtue, the other columns contain the vices)
Self-indulgence Temperance Insensibility
Rashness Courage Timidity/cowardice
Extreme partiality Wisdom (fair-mindedness) Strict impartiality
AUGUSTINE: STRICT COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The Church, the conscience of the state
Rule by divine right
Standard Will of God
Motive Love of God
Freedom Turning to God (conversion to God)
Good Life A life in union with God
Virtues Primary; temperance, courage, wisdom, justice, faith, hope,
and charity
BAIER: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The individual who feels compassion with others
Standard An action that reflects care and sympathy for others
Motive To establish caring relationships with others
Freedom Realizing oneself through relationships
Good Life A life in relationship with others
Virtues Primary: trust, sympathy
BEAUVOIR: EXISTENTIALIST
Agent The individual conscious of death
Standard Authentic human existence
Motive One has created the rules in each situation.
Freedom The human being
Good Life An authentic life
Virtues Secondary: authenticity is the only virtue
BENTHAM: ACT UTILITARIAN
Agent The pleasure-seeking individual who sympathizes with other sentient beings
Standard The greatest pleasure of the greatest number
Motive Out of sympathy for sentient beings
Freedom The exercise of the capacity to satisfy one’s needs and desires
Good Life A life in which the greatest number attain pleasure
Virtues Secondary: altruism, benevolence
EPICURUS: SUBJECTIVE RELATIVIST
Agent The pleasure-seeking individual
Standard Long-lasting pleasure
Motive To attain long-term satisfaction
Freedom Our desires are fixed; we can choose only how to fulfill them.
Good Life A life in which desires are satisfied
Virtues All virtues are instrumental, ultimately a form of prudence
EPICTETUS: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The rational individual in a community of rational individuals
Standard The rational, detached action
Motive To attain one’s true nature as a rational being
Freedom Everything is predetermined; persons are free only to a limited extent
Good Life A life of resignation to one’s fate
Virtues Primary: ataxia or indifference to one’s fate, as an actor is
Indifferent; truthfulness, loyalty, performance of duty
HOBBES: SUBJECTIVE RELATIVIST
Agent the self-interested individual
Standard short-term self-interest
Motive self-interest
Freedom the satisfaction of one’s desires
Good Life a life in which one’s desires are satisfied
Virtues secondary: cunning, force, fraud
HOBBES: CULTURAL RELATIVIST
Agent the Leviathan
Standard long-term (enlightened) self-interest
Motive self-interest
Freedom a secure state
Good Life a life in which one’s survival is protected
Virtues secondary: obedience to the laws of the Leviathan
HUME: COMMUNAL RELATIVIST
Agent the individual as a member of a particular society
Standard varies from community to community
Motive to express sympathy for the self-interest of others
Freedom the satisfaction of one’s preferences and desires
Good Life varies from community to community
Virtues primary: generosity, liberality, zeal, and gratitude
KANT: AUTONOMY CONTRACTARIAN
Agent The rule-creating individual
Standard The categorical imperative or generalizable rule; unanimous consent of the governed
Motive If one freely chooses the rules, he or she is bound by the rules.
Freedom The exercise of the capacity to choose the rules by which humans govern themselves
Good Life A life in accord with the rules chosen by rational humans
Virtues Secondary: good will, autonomy
- L. KING: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The conscientious individual
Standard The just action
Motive To attain justice
Freedom Liberation from oppression
Good Life A life in which one is released from oppression
Virtues Primary: Justice, autonomy
LOCKE AND JEFFERSON: LIBERTARIANS
Agent the enlightened individual
Standard consent of the governed
Motive self-interest
Freedom democratic rule
Good Life a life with minimal governmental constraints
Virtues Secondary: industriousness; independence
MACINTYRE: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The pursuer of internal goods
Standard Self-realization
Motive To manage conflict (conflict is basic): “The purpose of the quest is to discover the purpose of the quest.”
Freedom The exercise of the capacity given by heredity and environment
Good Life A life of pursuit of goods internal to practices, communal goods
Virtues Primary: qualities that enable one to pursue goods internal to a practice
MAIMONIDES: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN
Agent the human community
Standard rational revealed truths
Motive long-term self-interest
Freedom governance by freely chosen rules
Good Life life in accordance with reasonable rules
Virtues practical wisdom; fair-mindedness
MARX: EXTREME UTILITARIAN
Agent The benevolent participant in actions that seek the equal treatment for all humans
Standard The equal distribution of the social goods
Motive Sympathy for humanity
Freedom The exercise of the capacity to satisfy basic needs
Good Life A life in which the wealth and power in human society are equally distributed
Virtues Secondary: altruism, benevolence
MILL AND TAYLOR: RULE UTILITARIANS
Agent The impartial benevolent spectator
Standard The greatest happiness of the greatest number
Motive Sympathy for humanity
Freedom The exercise of the capacity to satisfy one’s needs and desires
Good Life A life in which the greatest number attain happiness
Virtues Secondary: altruism, benevolence
MUSSOLINI: STRICT COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The nation-state; the government as conscience of the state;
The state is absolute, the individual relative.
Standard Survival of the fittest, both individual and collective
Motive Spiritual development: struggle against death
Freedom The state is free when it directs the economic, moral, and spiritual life of the people. Only then are the people themselves free.
Good Life Rule by the few
Virtues Courage; strength; desire to survive
Rejects materialism.
Rejects socialist and democratic forms of government. Socialist governments seek a permanent state of peace, but conflict is basic. Democratic governments are a pretense of power by the people: the hidden hand in the market-place and hidden wielders of power actually do the governing.
PLATO: STRICT COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The city-state
Standard The form of the good
Motive Love of the community
Freedom Liberation from slavery
Good life Acceptance of one’s assigned role
Virtues Temperance, Courage, Wisdom, Justice
RAWLS: AUTONOMY CONTRACTARIAN
Agent The impartial rational spectator
Standard Basic principles chosen by unanimous consent from behind a veil of ignorance
Motive If one freely chooses the basic principles, he or she is bound by the principles
Freedom The exercise of the capacity to choose the basic principles by which humans govern themselves
Good Life An autonomous life
Virtues Secondary: fidelity, trust, integrity, truthfulness, and justice
RUDDICK: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN
Agent The caring individual who is connected to others
Standard Care for particular others
Motive The choice of life
Freedom Remaining in a “holding tension”
Good Life A life in relationship with others
Virtues Primary: humility, clear-sighted cheerfulness
STRAUSS:LIBERTARIAN (esoteric version)
Agent the wise philosopher who teaches his generation
Standard consent of the governing class; dominance of the fittest
Motive fear of violent death
Freedom creation of the rules and life’s meaning
Good Life contemplation, leisure, learning
Virtues foresight, wisdom
STRAUSS: STRICT COMMUNITARIAN (exoteric version)
Agent God or the state
Standard revealed (divine) or positive (civil) law
Motive fear of violent death
Freedom conformity to the leader’s will
Good Life stable and peaceful life
Virtues courage, temperance, obedience and trust in leaders
Bill Soderberg, Philosopher at large 